1. No country in South Asia has ratified the 1997 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses.
2. Water-sharing treaties in South Asia broadly follow a common and uniformly accepted legal framework across the region.
3. Many existing bilateral arrangements in the region are increasingly under pressure because they were not framed for present-day climate, demographic, and technological challenges.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Statement 1 – Correct: No South Asian country has ratified the 1997 UN Watercourses Convention. Bangladesh and Nepal had supported it at the UN General Assembly stage, but that support did not translate into formal ratification. It should also be distinguished from the 1992 UN Water Convention: Bangladesh joined the 1992 convention in 2025, but that does not alter the non-ratification status of the 1997 convention.
Statement 2 – Incorrect: Transboundary water governance in South Asia does not rest on a common and uniformly accepted legal framework. It is shaped mainly by bilateral treaties and arrangements, and these differ in their governing principles, dispute-settlement design, and data-sharing provisions. For example, agreements such as the Indus Waters Treaty and the Ganges Treaty do not follow one standardised regional legal model.
Statement 3 – Correct: Many existing arrangements are under growing strain because they were framed in an earlier context and were not designed for present-day pressures. Climate change is altering river flows through glacier retreat and increasingly erratic monsoon patterns. Rapid population growth has sharply increased water demand across the region. At the same time, advances in storage and hydroelectric technologies have created new technical and political disputes that older treaty frameworks did not anticipate.
1. Kosi — India and Nepal
2. Mahakali — India and Nepal
3. Teesta — India and Bangladesh
4. Kabul basin — India and Afghanistan
How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?
Pair 1 – Correct: Kosi is a major transboundary river shared by India and Nepal. Its management is governed by the Kosi Agreement of 1954, which was later amended in 1966. The arrangement is linked to the Kosi project, including barrage and canal systems, and was designed to support flood control and irrigation benefits for both countries.
Pair 2 – Correct: Mahakali is shared by India and Nepal. The river is also known as the Kali or Sharda in different stretches, and it forms part of the boundary between the two countries. The Mahakali Treaty of 1996 provides for the integrated development of the river, including the Pancheshwar Multipurpose Project.
Pair 3 – Correct: Teesta is shared by India and Bangladesh. It originates in the Himalayas in Sikkim, flows through India, and then enters Bangladesh. It is one of the most significant and contentious transboundary rivers between the two countries, and the issue of a formal water-sharing treaty has remained under prolonged negotiation.
Pair 4 – Incorrect: The Kabul basin is not a shared basin between India and Afghanistan. It is a transboundary water system linking Afghanistan and Pakistan. India has provided developmental assistance in Afghanistan for projects connected to this wider basin context, including the Salma Dam and the proposed Shahtoot Dam, but such assistance does not change the basin’s actual transboundary pairing.
Option (c) – Correct: The persistence of water stress is linked to rising demand, ecological degradation, and weak governance. Population growth, industrialisation, urbanisation, and poor cooperative management have widened the gap between water availability and actual extraction or access.
Option (a) – Incorrect: South Asia has a major network of river systems and also shows strong dependence on groundwater in many areas. Therefore, the problem is not the absence of major rivers or low groundwater reliance.
Option (b) – Incorrect: The region does not mainly depend on desalination. River systems, groundwater, monsoon-dependent hydrology, and shared basins remain central to water availability and governance.
Option (d) – Incorrect: Basin-level planning challenges do exist, but the core reason for persistent water stress is broader: demand pressures, ecological stress, and weak cooperative management, not simply legal or institutional restrictions.
1. The treaty allocated the eastern rivers to India and the western rivers to Pakistan.
2. It is often cited as having survived wars between India and Pakistan after Independence.
3. It permanently settled all later disputes relating to hydroelectric projects in the basin.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Statement 1 – Correct: The Indus Waters Treaty of 1960 divided the six rivers of the Indus system into two groups. The eastern rivers — Ravi, Beas and Sutlej — were allocated to India for unrestricted use. The western rivers — Indus, Jhelum and Chenab — were allocated to Pakistan, though India retained limited rights over them, including specified non-consumptive uses such as hydroelectric generation, subject to treaty conditions.
Statement 2 – Correct: The treaty is widely regarded as one of the most durable water-sharing arrangements in the world. It is often cited for having remained operational despite major wars between India and Pakistan in 1965, 1971 and 1999, as well as repeated periods of diplomatic tension after Independence.
Statement 3 – Incorrect: The treaty did not permanently settle all future disputes over hydroelectric projects in the basin. Rather, it created an institutional mechanism to deal with continuing disagreements. This includes the Permanent Indus Commission for bilateral technical engagement, a Neutral Expert for specified technical differences, and a Court of Arbitration for legal disputes involving interpretation of the treaty. Later disputes over projects such as Baglihar, Kishanganga and Ratle show that the treaty provided a framework for dispute management, not a permanent end to all future conflicts.
1. It is a Central Sector Scheme under the Department of Water Resources, River Development, and Ganga Rejuvenation.
2. It treats the river basin as the basic hydrological unit for water-resource planning and development.
3. Its planning framework is confined to rivers and excludes tributaries, groundwater, and associated ecosystems.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Statement 1 – Correct: The River Basin Management Scheme is a Central Sector Scheme implemented by the Department of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation under the Ministry of Jal Shakti. It is intended to build a stronger technical and scientific basis for integrated water-resources management in the country.
Statement 2 – Correct: The scheme treats the river basin as the basic hydrological unit for planning and development. Its underlying approach is Integrated Water Resources Management, which shifts planning away from purely administrative boundaries such as districts or states and instead uses natural hydrological boundaries as the more appropriate framework for water governance.
Statement 3 – Incorrect: The planning framework is not confined only to the main river channel. A river-basin approach is broader and includes tributaries, since management must cover the full drainage network. It also includes groundwater through the idea of conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater. In addition, associated ecosystems such as wetlands, biodiversity zones, and the maintenance of environmental flows are part of a modern basin-based management framework.
1. The scheme continues through the period of the 16th Finance Commission.
2. The outlay approved for this phase is higher than that of the previous phase.
3. The scheme follows a Centre–State sharing formula for financing.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Statement 1 – Correct: The approved continuation covers the 16th Finance Commission period.
Statement 2 – Correct: The outlay is higher than in the previous phase.
Statement 3 – Incorrect: The scheme is fully funded by the Union Government.
1. Brahmaputra Board
2. Central Water Commission
3. National Water Development Agency
Which of the above are associated with implementation or planning functions under the River Basin Management Scheme?
Agency 1 – Brahmaputra Board – Associated: It primarily focuses on the Brahmaputra and Barak valleys in the North Eastern Region. Its role includes preparation of River Basin Master Plans, which form the basis for flood control, bank erosion mitigation, and drainage improvement in the region.
Agency 2 – Central Water Commission (CWC) – Associated: It is the premier technical organisation for water resources at the national level. Under the RBM framework, it undertakes surveys, investigations, and prepares Detailed Project Reports for multipurpose water-resource projects, including those in complex terrains such as Himalayan and Indus basins.
Agency 3 – National Water Development Agency (NWDA) – Associated: It plays a central role in national water planning, particularly in the Interlinking of Rivers programme. It conducts water-balance studies and prepares Pre-Feasibility Reports, Feasibility Reports, and Detailed Project Reports for inter-basin water transfer proposals.
Conclusion: All three agencies are associated with the implementation and planning framework of the River Basin Management Scheme, though each performs a different technical function within that broader structure.
Option (b) – Correct: The Brahmaputra Board and the National Water Development Agency have distinct mandates under India’s broader river-basin planning framework. The Brahmaputra Board is focused on basin planning and flood-management-related functions in the North Eastern Region, especially the Brahmaputra and Barak valleys, along with related areas such as Sikkim and parts of West Bengal. Its work includes flood control, river-bank protection, drainage improvement, and anti-erosion measures. By contrast, the National Water Development Agency operates at the national level and is associated with planning under the Interlinking of Rivers programme. Its functions include water-balance studies and preparation of Pre-Feasibility Reports, Feasibility Reports, and Detailed Project Reports for inter-basin water transfer links.
Option (a) – Incorrect: The Brahmaputra Board is not concerned with international adjudication of river disputes. Such matters are handled through treaty-based mechanisms and the concerned ministries, not by the Board. Similarly, canal regulation at the farm level is not the core function of the National Water Development Agency; that is generally handled through state-level irrigation administration rather than a national planning body like NWDA.
Option (c) – Incorrect: Both descriptions are artificially narrow. The Brahmaputra Board does not work only on groundwater recharge; its role is much broader and includes flood management, erosion control, drainage, and basin planning. Likewise, the NWDA does not work only on anti-erosion measures; its central function is inter-basin water planning and river-link studies.
Option (d) – Incorrect: This reverses their actual areas of work. The Brahmaputra Board is not an Indus-basin body; it is primarily associated with the Brahmaputra-Barak system and the North Eastern Region. The NWDA is not confined to the Brahmaputra basin either; it works across the country on surplus-deficit basin assessments and river-link planning.
Additional distinction: The Brahmaputra Board is an autonomous statutory body established under the Brahmaputra Board Act, 1980, whereas the NWDA functions as a registered society under the Ministry of Jal Shakti.
1. The scheme gives special attention to the North Eastern Region.
2. It also covers strategically important basins in Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh.
3. The Ganga basin is identified as the principal strategic focus of the current phase.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Statement 1 – Correct: The River Basin Management Scheme gives major attention to the North Eastern Region. This focus is reflected especially through the role of the Brahmaputra Board, which is associated with basin planning, flood control, drainage improvement, and anti-erosion work in the Brahmaputra and Barak valleys. Thus, the North East is not a peripheral area under the scheme but one of its major territorial priorities.
Statement 2 – Correct: The scheme also covers strategically important basins in Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh. This is significant because these regions are part of the broader Indus river system, where India’s water-resource planning is linked not only to development needs but also to its treaty-based rights and obligations under the Indus Waters Treaty. In these difficult and sensitive terrains, the Central Water Commission plays an important role through surveys, investigations, and preparation of technical project reports.
Statement 3 – Incorrect: The Ganga basin is not identified as the principal strategic focus of the present RBM thrust. The current priority areas highlighted under the scheme are the North Eastern river systems such as the Brahmaputra, Barak and Teesta, along with strategically important Indus-basin areas in Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh. Although the Ganga basin is undeniably important, river-cleaning and rejuvenation in that context are more directly associated with a separate flagship programme, namely Namami Gange. The RBM Scheme has a broader technical and planning role across major river systems rather than making the Ganga its principal strategic centre.
Geographical focus under the scheme: North Eastern Region – Brahmaputra Board – Basin planning, flood management, master plans, drainage and anti-erosion work.
Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh: Central Water Commission – Surveys, investigations, project planning, hydropower-related studies, and work linked to Indus-basin obligations.
National inter-basin planning: National Water Development Agency – Interlinking of Rivers planning across states.
1. Lack of transparent river-flow data disclosure by upper riparian states can weaken mutual trust.
2. China’s upstream position on major river systems complicates the emergence of a region-wide multilateral arrangement.
3. South Asia already has a comprehensive multilateral framework governing all major shared rivers.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Statement 1 – Correct: Data opacity weakens trust.
Statement 2 – Correct: China’s upstream position complicates region-wide cooperation.
Statement 3 – Incorrect: No comprehensive multilateral framework governs all major shared rivers in South Asia.
Option (a) – Incorrect: Water is not a Union subject in the primary constitutional sense; it is mainly a State subject. Interstate coordination problems have not ceased and remain one of the central challenges of Indian water governance.
Option (b) – Correct: The most appropriate inference is that weak institutions, inadequate devolution, and coordination failures among states can undermine both domestic water governance and wider regional outcomes. India’s water governance suffers from structural fragmentation: multiple agencies such as the Central Water Commission, Central Ground Water Board, and state-level departments often function in silos rather than through an integrated river-basin framework. This weakens holistic planning and implementation.
A second major constraint is the federal structure of water governance. Water is primarily a State subject under Entry 17 of the State List, not a Union subject. As a result, interstate coordination remains a major challenge rather than a settled issue. This is visible in recurring interstate disputes over shared rivers such as the Cauvery and Krishna. Basin-level planning requires cooperation across political boundaries, but that cooperation is often difficult to secure.
A further problem is inadequate devolution. Although Panchayats and Municipalities are expected to play a role in water management, they often lack sufficient finances, technical capacity, and effective legal authority to manage local water bodies, watersheds, and aquifers. This weak local institutional base limits the practical implementation of basin planning.
These domestic weaknesses also affect wider regional outcomes. When internal coordination is poor, data systems are inconsistent, and interstate disputes remain unresolved, India’s effectiveness in transboundary and regional water governance is also weakened. Internal governance quality therefore has direct implications beyond the domestic sphere.
Option (c) – Incorrect: The River Boards Act, 1956 exists in law, but it is widely regarded as ineffective in practice. It has not emerged as a genuinely active and successful instrument of interstate river governance, and no effective river-board framework under it has become central to Indian water management.
Option (d) – Incorrect: Domestic governance weaknesses do materially affect basin-level planning. In fact, weak institutions, poor coordination, and limited devolution are among the main reasons why scientific and integrated basin management often fails to translate into effective action on the ground.
1. Creation of a working group of ministers from South Asian countries
2. Development of a shared and regularly updated regional database of freshwater resources
3. Commitment to transparent disclosure of transboundary river-flow data
4. Joint action on climate-related changes affecting the Himalayan ecosystem and glacial freshwater reserves
Which of the above are steps towards improving transboundary water governance in South Asia?
Measure 1 – Relevant: Creation of a working group of ministers from South Asian countries would strengthen regular political dialogue and provide an institutional platform for coordination on shared water issues.
Measure 2 – Relevant: Development of a shared and regularly updated regional database of freshwater resources would improve knowledge-sharing, reduce information asymmetry, and support better basin-level planning.
Measure 3 – Relevant: Commitment to transparent disclosure of transboundary river-flow data would help reduce mistrust and improve cooperative management among riparian states.
Measure 4 – Relevant: Joint action on climate-related changes affecting the Himalayan ecosystem and glacial freshwater reserves is essential because river flows across South Asia are increasingly shaped by glacier retreat, changing snowlines, and erratic hydrological patterns.
Conclusion: All four are relevant measures: regular political dialogue, shared database creation, transparent data disclosure, and joint climate-related action.
1. The scheme provides for preparation and periodic updating of river basin master plans.
2. It includes hydrological, topographical, and geological investigations for project preparation.
3. The scheme supports preparation of Detailed Project Reports for multipurpose projects.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Statement 1 – Correct: Basin-level planning under the River Basin Management Scheme includes the preparation and periodic updating of River Basin Master Plans. The official scheme note specifically refers to preparation and updating of master plans for major river systems in the Brahmaputra and Barak basins.
Statement 2 – Correct: The scheme does include hydrological, topographical, and geological investigations for project preparation. The official scheme description states that the Central Water Commission undertakes surveys and investigations under the RBM Scheme, especially in basins such as the Indus, Brahmaputra, Barak, and Teesta. These investigations form the technical basis for basin planning and project formulation.
Statement 3 – Correct: The scheme supports preparation of Detailed Project Reports for multipurpose projects. The official note expressly states that the Central Water Commission undertakes DPR preparation for water-resource projects under the scheme, and the Brahmaputra Board’s official activity list also shows DPR work for multipurpose projects.
1. Baglihar — dispute associated with the Indus basin
2. Kishanganga — dispute associated with the Indus basin
3. Majuli Island — site of anti-erosion and flood-management work
4. Kosi–Mechi link — inter-country river-link project between India and Nepal
Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?
Pair 1 – Correct: Baglihar is associated with disputes in the Indus basin.
Pair 2 – Correct: Kishanganga is also associated with disputes in the Indus basin.
Pair 3 – Correct: Majuli Island is linked with anti-erosion and flood-management work.
Pair 4 – Incorrect: Kosi–Mechi is an intra-state link project in Bihar.
1. The Indus and the Brahmaputra both have their origins in the Tibetan region.
2. The Ganga system is entirely peninsular in its source linkage and has no hydrological connection with the Tibetan region.
3. Certain tributaries associated with the Ganga basin derive from trans-Himalayan or Tibetan-linked headwater zones.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Statement-wise Analysis
Statement 1 – Correct: The Indus rises in the Tibetan region near Lake Manasarovar, and the Brahmaputra also originates in Tibet, where it flows eastward as the Yarlung Tsangpo before entering India.
Statement 2 – Incorrect: This statement is wrong on two counts. First, the Ganga system is not “entirely peninsular”; it is fundamentally a Himalayan river system. Second, the basin cannot be treated as having no hydrological connection at all with the Tibetan region, because parts of its wider tributary network show Himalayan–trans-Himalayan linkage.
Statement 3 – Correct: The Ganga basin is not confined to a single simple source geography. While the main Ganga source is in the Himalaya south of the Tibetan Plateau, some tributaries and upper catchment linkages associated with the basin extend into or near the Tibetan region.
Additional Prelims Facts: The Brahmaputra is known as the Yarlung Tsangpo in Tibet before entering India through Arunachal Pradesh.
The Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra are often studied together in South Asian geography because they combine Himalayan glacial, snow-fed, and monsoonal river characteristics.
In basin-based geography, UPSC may distinguish between the origin of the main river, the origin of its source stream, and the wider headwater linkage of the basin.