Daily Newspaper Notes: March 6, 2026

Escalation of Maritime Conflict

• An Iranian warship (IRIS Dena) sank about 40 nautical miles south of Sri Lanka after an underwater explosion while returning from India’s MILAN naval exercise.
• The incident suggests that ongoing tensions involving Iran, the United States, and Israel are extending into the Indian Ocean region.
• Iran claimed that its forces launched missiles at a US Navy warship in the Indian Ocean, though this has not been confirmed by the United States.
• The United States reported destroying multiple Iranian ships and indicated readiness to escort oil tankers through Gulf shipping routes.
• These developments indicate a significant escalation in the maritime dimension of the conflict.

Strategic Importance of the Indian Ocean

• The Indian Ocean is a major global trade and energy corridor linking the Gulf with East and Southeast Asia.
• Approximately 80% of global seaborne oil passes through the Indian Ocean.
• The region contains key maritime chokepoints:
  • Strait of Hormuz
  • Strait of Malacca
  • Bab el-Mandeb
• Around 9.8 billion tonnes of cargo transit these waters annually, accounting for about half of global container traffic.

Security Implications for Littoral States

• Intensified operations by submarines, surveillance aircraft, and surface warships increase the risk of miscalculation and rapid escalation.
• Littoral states face political and security pressures if their waters become operational zones for external conflicts.
• There is concern that the Indian Ocean may become an extended theatre of West Asian conflicts.

Legal and Normative Framework

• The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) establishes rules governing navigation rights and responsibilities in international waters.
• However, targeting of naval vessels, missile demonstrations, and contested control of chokepoints test the resilience of this framework.

India’s Strategic Responsibility

• Although the waters are legally international, they fall within India’s primary sphere of influence.
• Prolonged naval warfare by extra-regional powers could raise questions about India’s role as a net security provider in the region.

Need for Regional Coordination

• Transparency, information sharing, and surveillance cooperation among littoral states are essential to prevent miscalculation.
• Diplomatically, states must signal that conflicts in West Asia should not spill over into the Indian Ocean, as such escalation could threaten global economic stability.

Context

The recommendations of the 16th Finance Commission (FC) highlight a shift toward strengthening the fiscal position of Urban Local Governments (ULGs). By increasing predictable grants and reinforcing institutional conditions, the Commission seeks to reduce cities’ dependence on discretionary government schemes.

Source: The quiet liberation of Indian cities, The Indian Express

Dependence of Cities on Government Schemes

• Historically, Indian cities have relied on Union and State government schemes for funding.
• These schemes are unpredictable in timing and size and are limited to specific sectors such as water or sanitation.
• State Finance Commission (SFC) grants mainly support staff salaries and operational expenses of Urban Local Governments (ULGs).
• Union Finance Commission (UFC) grants are the only predictable source of infrastructure funding for cities.

Increased Financial Support under the 16th Finance Commission

• The 16th Finance Commission increased grants to ULGs, making them less dependent on centrally sponsored schemes (CSS).
• Allocations by the 16th FC are 2.3 times higher than those of the 15th FC.
• From 2014–15 to 2025–26, total allocations to states and ULGs through urban CSS amounted to ₹3.12 lakh crore.
• Nearly 90% of this spending occurred between 2016–17 and 2023–24.
• During most of this period, CSS allocations exceeded Finance Commission allocations by 15% to 400%.
• In the last two years, CSS allocations declined significantly, making FC allocations comparatively higher.

Changing Role of the Union Government in Urban Funding

• The Union government’s commitment to urban infrastructure spending appears to be declining.
• The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs’ share in the Union Budget fell to around 1%, down from 1.9% during 2017–19.
• This reflects fiscal prioritisation by the Centre since local governments fall under the State List.

Strengthening State Finance Commissions

• The 16th FC retained the entry conditions set by the 15th FC for accessing grants.
• A key condition is the timely constitution of State Finance Commissions (SFCs).
• Action Taken Reports on SFC recommendations must be tabled in state legislatures within six months.
• SFC grants are significantly larger than UFC grants in many states such as Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, and Karnataka.
• However, states often fail to:
  • Constitute SFCs on time
  • Provide credible leadership
  • Ensure adequate staffing and tenure
  • Accept key recommendations
• The accountability provisions of the 15th FC helped rejuvenate SFCs, and the 16th FC continues this reform signal.

Significance of Empowered Urban Local Governments

• Empowering ULGs reduces dependence on discretionary government funding.
• Strong local governments are essential for economic growth, poverty reduction, and urban liveability.
• Fiscal strengthening of ULGs supports the broader vision of Viksit Bharat.

Context

The sinking of the Iranian warship IRIS Dena by a US submarine near Sri Lanka while returning from a multilateral naval exercise has triggered debate about maritime law, naval warfare, and the legality of military action in international waters.

Source: Was US legally right in sinking Iranian ship? What framework governing maritime conflict says, The Indian Express

Incident and Strategic Context

• A US submarine torpedoed the Iranian warship IRIS Dena near Sri Lanka in international waters.
• The warship had participated in MILAN-2026 and the International Fleet Review organised by the Indian Navy off Visakhapatnam.
• The incident expanded the US–Israel–Iran conflict beyond West Asia and the Gulf into the Indian Ocean region.
• It raised concerns in India about maritime security in the Indian Ocean, where India maintains a significant naval presence.

Maritime Law Framework

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)

• UNCLOS governs international maritime law, mainly focusing on peacetime governance of the oceans.
• It does not contain explicit provisions regulating the conduct of belligerents during armed conflict.
• The United States is not a signatory to UNCLOS.

Law of Naval Warfare

• During conflicts, the law of naval warfare operates alongside UNCLOS.
• A warship belonging to a belligerent state may be treated as a legitimate military target, even if it is not directly participating in combat.

Use of Force Under the UN Charter

Prohibition and Exception

• Article 2(4) of the UN Charter prohibits the use of force in international relations.
• Article 51 provides an exception allowing self-defence in response to an armed attack.

Security Council Authorisation

• Military action may also occur with authorisation from the UN Security Council under Chapter VII of the UN Charter.
• Such authorisation requires majority support and no veto by permanent members.

Sanctions and Participation in Exercises

• The IRIS Dena was sanctioned by the US Treasury Department in February 2023.
• The sanction was linked to allegations that Iran supplied UAVs for Russia’s operations in Ukraine.
• Sanctions do not prevent a ship from participating in peacetime multilateral naval exercises, though they restrict business or transactional activities.

Debates on Legality of the Strike

• Some experts argue that there are no fixed war zones in the maritime domain, allowing hostilities to occur in international waters.
• Others contend that the use of force against a warship on the high seas is presumptively unlawful unless justified by self-defence or an ongoing armed conflict.
• The attack has been described by officials as a major escalation, especially since the ship was reportedly on peaceful passage outside the conflict zone.

Context

The Rajasthan government recently announced the renaming of Mount Abu to Abu Raj. The debate surrounding the decision has drawn attention to the historical, mythological, and religious associations of Mount Abu.

Source: Explained: As Mount Abu becomes Abu Raj, the debate over renaming Rajasthan’s only hill station, The Indian Express

Etymology of Mount Abu

• The name Mount Abu originates from the ancient term “Arbudaranya”, meaning “the forest of Arbhuda”, mentioned in the Puranas.
• The place is associated with Sage Vashistha, who is believed to have used the area as a retreat after a dispute with Sage Vishwamitra.
• A popular myth states that a serpent named Arbhuda saved the life of Nandi, the mount of Lord Shiva.
• The present name “Mount Abu” is considered a diminutive form derived from Arbhuda.

Mythological Associations

• According to legend, Sage Vashistha performed a yajna on the mountain seeking divine protection for righteousness on Earth.
• From the yajna fire emerged a youth considered the first of the Agnivansha Rajputs.

Religious and Cultural Sites

• Guru Shikhar, the highest peak of the Aravalli Range, hosts the Guru Dattatreya Temple, dedicated to the incarnation representing Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva.
• The temple is believed to have been constructed in the 14th century.
• The Dilwara Jain Temples, built between the 11th and 13th centuries, are regarded among the finest Jain temples in the world.

Historical Description

• The British officer James Tod described Mount Abu as the “Olympus of Rajasthan” in his work Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan.

Context

The SHANTI Act 2025 marks a major policy shift in India’s nuclear energy sector by opening participation to public and private sectors, academia, and industry. The legislation aims to support the expansion of nuclear power capacity and strengthen India’s long-term energy security.

Source: Expert Explains | How thorium can power India’s 100 GWe by 2047 mission, The Indian Express

Expansion of Nuclear Power Capacity

• India’s nuclear expansion currently depends heavily on imported uranium because domestic uranium ores are lean and expensive to extract.
• The government has announced a mission to achieve 100 GWe nuclear power capacity by 2047.
• This expansion will rely largely on thermal reactors, requiring about 18,000–20,000 tonnes of uranium annually.
• This requirement equals roughly one-third of current global uranium production.

Limits of Uranium-Based Nuclear Expansion

• Global nuclear generation capacity is projected to increase from about 380 GWe today to around 1,400 GWe.
• Known global uranium resources of about 8 million tonnes would sustain reactors in once-through fuel use for only around three decades.
• Two implications arise:
  • Once-through uranium use is not sustainable in the long term.
  • Securing adequate global uranium supply will become increasingly difficult.

Nuclear Recycling and Thorium Advantage

• Nuclear recycling can increase the energy potential of nuclear fuel by 50–100 times.
• Few countries have adopted recycling due to concerns about weapons proliferation.
• Thorium recycling offers an alternative because:
  • India possesses the world’s largest thorium reserves.
  • Thorium use can enhance energy independence.
  • It significantly reduces proliferation risks.
• Advancing thorium utilisation requires large-scale multidisciplinary research and innovation.

Role of Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs)

• India’s three-stage nuclear programme uses fast breeder reactors (FBRs) as the next stage after thermal reactors.
• The 500 MWe Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor is nearing completion.
• Future progress requires development of metal-fuelled FBRs and fuel recycling technologies.
• Fast reactors will play a key role in irradiating thorium and producing uranium-233, essential for the third stage of the programme.

Using PHWRs for Thorium Irradiation

• Expansion of Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) beyond earlier plans creates an opportunity to irradiate thorium in existing reactors.
• Thorium can be used in combination with HALEU (High-Assay Low-Enriched Uranium) as fuel.
• This approach can:
  • Increase uranium-233 production.
  • Accelerate development of third-stage thorium reactors.
  • Improve economics, safety, and proliferation resistance.
  • Achieve higher burnup levels, reducing spent fuel and back-end costs.

Technology Development and International Cooperation

• HALEU–thorium fuel systems require accelerated irradiation testing and demonstration in PHWRs.
• India currently lacks facilities for such testing, but international cooperation agreements can support these efforts.
• The global HALEU supply chain is expanding, driven by next-generation reactor programmes.

Future Reactor Technologies

• Development priorities include:
  • Thorium Molten Salt Reactor (TMSR)-based Small Modular Reactors (SMRs).
  • SMRs capable of producing low-cost green hydrogen through thermochemical processes.
• These systems may share a common pyrochemical nuclear fuel recycling process.
• Similar recycling methods could also be used for irradiated HALEU–thorium fuel.

Strategic Significance

• The SHANTI Act aims to create a broader ecosystem for nuclear energy development involving multiple stakeholders.
• Advancing thorium utilisation, fast reactors, and SMRs is essential for long-term nuclear expansion and energy independence.

Context

The National Green Tribunal (NGT) was established under the NGT Act, 2010 to strengthen environmental governance by combining legal and ecological expertise. However, its performance has been uneven, raising concerns about its institutional independence and technical capacity.

Source: Mind the expertise gap in NGT, The Indian Express

Mandate and Intended Role

• The NGT Act, 2010 envisioned a specialised tribunal integrating judicial and environmental expertise.
• The aim was to improve environmental governance and decision-making through scientifically informed rulings.
• The Act mandates 10–20 judicial members and an equal number of expert members.

Record of Interventions

• The NGT has taken swift action in cases related to sand mining and river pollution, emphasising scientifically established standards.
• Its directions on air pollution control have been based on technical analysis, though their impact has often been limited by weak implementation.
• Critics argue that some rulings on infrastructure projects show insufficient engagement with ecological realities.

Concerns About Institutional Independence

• Between 2020 and 2025, the tribunal ruled in favour of project developers in four out of five cases.
• The government attributes these outcomes to the merit of individual cases.
• However, nine of the 13 expert members appointed since 2016 previously held senior positions in the environment ministry.
• This raises concerns about potential conflicts of interest, since the NGT hears appeals against government environmental decisions.

Shortage of Technical Expertise

• Expert positions in the NGT have often remained vacant, leading to benches functioning without adequate technical expertise.
• The tribunal’s expert pool has largely been drawn from the Indian Forest Service.
• Modern environmental challenges require multidisciplinary inputs from fields such as:
  • Science
  • Economics
  • Engineering
  • Urban planning
  • Law
• The limited diversity of expertise has contributed to uneven decision-making and doubts about the tribunal’s ability to independently assess scientific claims.

Need for Institutional Strengthening

• Environmental issues linked to development — such as displacement, pollution, groundwater depletion, biodiversity loss, and waste management — require specialised technical knowledge.
• Climate change has further increased the complexity of environmental governance.
• Strengthening the NGT requires expanding multidisciplinary expertise and improving technical capacity, not merely filling vacancies.

Context

International Women’s Day (March 8) highlights the need to advance women’s rights and gender equality. The 2026 theme — “Rights, Justice, Action: For All Women and Girls” underscores the urgency of addressing the disproportionate impact of conflicts on women and girls.

Source: Protecting women’s rights amid conflict and instability, The Hindu

Impact of Armed Conflict on Women

• Women and girls suffer disproportionately during wars and conflicts.
• Conflicts increase:
  • Gender-based violence
  • Food insecurity
  • Forced displacement and restricted mobility
  • Loss of livelihoods and breakdown of families
  • Limited access to health care and education
• Sexual violence and rape have historically been used as tools of war to humiliate and subjugate the enemy.
• Women in conflict zones often face mental health challenges such as depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Global Trends and Data

• The UN Secretary-General’s Report on Women, Peace and Security (2025) notes the highest number of active conflicts since 1946.
• Around 676 million women live within 50 km of deadly conflicts — the highest level since the 1990s.
• Civilian casualties among women and children have quadrupled compared to the previous two-year period.
• Conflict-related sexual violence increased by 87% within two years.

Underrepresentation in Peace Processes

• Despite evidence that women’s participation improves the durability of peace agreements, they remain largely excluded from decision-making.
• In 2024, women accounted for:
  • 7% of negotiators
  • 14% of mediators in peace processes
• Nine out of ten peace processes had no women negotiators.

International Framework

UN Security Council Resolution 1325 (2000)

• Adopted unanimously on October 31, 2000.
• Recognizes the need to:
  • Protect women during armed conflicts.
  • Ensure women’s participation in peacebuilding and conflict resolution.
• Many countries have adopted National Action Plans, but implementation gaps remain significant.

Key Concern

• Wars, displacement, and political instability have worsened conditions for women and children, weakening institutions meant to protect them.
• Ensuring protection, participation, and support for women in conflict zones remains essential for achieving gender equality and durable peace.

Context

The Women’s Reservation Act will reserve one-third of Lok Sabha seats for women from 2029, potentially creating India’s most gender-representative Parliament. However, meaningful representation requires clear policy agendas, including addressing the lack of a gender-sensitive elder care framework.

Source: Transforming representation into real change by 2029, The Hindu

Women’s Reservation and Policy Agenda

• From 2029, one-third of Lok Sabha seats will be reserved for women under the Women’s Reservation Act.
• The expansion represents the largest legislative increase in political representation in India.
• Representation alone is insufficient unless women’s issues are recognised and prioritised politically.

Ageing and Gender Inequality

• India is ageing rapidly, though this trend is not widely reflected in public policy debates.
• Over 100 million Indians are already above 60 years, projected to exceed 250 million by 2040.
• Women outlive men by four to five years on average, but face disadvantages such as:
  • Lower lifetime savings
  • Interrupted employment histories
  • Lack of asset ownership
  • Limited caregiving support in old age

Policy Gaps in Elder Care

• Existing policies such as:
  • National Policy for Older Persons (1999)
  • Indira Gandhi National Old Age Pension Scheme
  address ageing mainly through poverty and health perspectives, without a gender dimension.
• Ageing women are not recognised as a distinct policy category in current systems.

Evidence of Emerging Policy Response

• In January 2026, Maharashtra launched menopause clinics in 580 government facilities.
• Within five weeks, over 31,000 women accessed these services, reflecting previously unaddressed needs.

Data on Elderly Women’s Vulnerability

• A 2023 study in Alzheimer’s & Dementia estimated 8.8 million Indians above 60 living with dementia, expected to nearly double by 2036.
• Women are more likely to live alone during cognitive decline and less likely to receive caregiving support.

Limited Political Attention

• Parliamentary records show very little discussion on ageing women:
  • Few parliamentary questions
  • No private member bills
  • Minimal committee attention

Need for Policy Integration

• Future political representation must address the entire life cycle of women, including ageing.
• Suggested policy actions include:
  • Age- and gender-disaggregated census data
  • Transparent reporting of elder-care spending
  • Political commitments to dignified ageing before elections

Key Concern

• Without proactive policy development before 2029, the expansion of women’s representation in Parliament may fail to address structural issues affecting women’s ageing and dignity.

Context

Reports of a missile strike on a girls’ primary school in Minab, Iran, during U.S.–Israel attacks on Iran, have raised concerns about possible violations of International Humanitarian Law (IHL). The incident has intensified debates over the legality of the use of force under the UN Charter and the protection of civilians during armed conflict.

Source: The legality of U.S.-Israel strikes on Iran, The Hindu

Use of Force Under International Law

UN Charter Framework

• The UN Charter (1945) aims to maintain international peace and security.
• Article 2(4) prohibits states from using force against the territorial integrity or political independence of another state.
• The UN Security Council can authorise the use of force in response to threats to international peace.

Exception: Self-Defence

• Article 51 permits the use of force in self-defence only in response to an actual armed attack.
• Claims of anticipatory self-defence (preventing a future attack) remain debated and widely questioned in international law.

International Humanitarian Law (IHL)

Origin and Scope

• IHL governs conduct during armed conflict (jus in bello), unlike the UN Charter which governs the legality of initiating war (jus ad bellum).
• Modern IHL is primarily codified in the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and related treaties.
• It protects civilians, prisoners of war, and the wounded and sick, and restricts certain weapons and methods of warfare.

Core Principles of IHL

• Distinction: Parties must distinguish between combatants and civilians, and between military targets and civilian objects such as schools and hospitals.
• Proportionality: Incidental civilian harm must not be excessive compared to the anticipated military advantage.
• Military Necessity: Force must be used only when required to achieve legitimate military objectives.
• Precaution: Parties must take all feasible measures to minimise civilian harm during attacks.

Protection of Children and Civilian Objects

• Attacks on civilians and civilian infrastructure, including schools and hospitals, are prohibited under IHL.
• The Convention on the Rights of the Child requires states to take measures to protect children affected by armed conflict.
• The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court defines intentional attacks on civilians or educational institutions as war crimes.

Loss of Civilian Protection

• Civilian objects can lose protected status if used for military purposes, such as functioning as a military base or command post.
• If a civilian site is unintentionally damaged during an attack on a military objective, legality depends on proportionality and precaution assessments.

Significance of International Law

• Despite violations, international law continues to shape global conduct in diplomacy, trade, aviation, maritime navigation, and security agreements.
• Its key function is to establish norms and demand justification for state actions, enabling scrutiny and accountability when violations occur.