Impact Of Arctic Sea Ice On Indian Monsoon
- Decline in Arctic sea ice is affecting the Indian Summer Monsoon Rainfall (ISMR).
- Increased variability and unpredictability in monsoon rainfall.
- Research by India’s NCPOR and Korea’s Polar Research Institute.
- Climate crisis linked to surplus rain in northwestern India.
How Arctic Sea Ice Affects Monsoon
Central Arctic Ice Decline
- Impact on Rainfall: Less ice in the Arctic results in reduced rainfall in western and peninsular India, but more rain in central and northern India.
- Mechanism: Heat transfer to the atmosphere strengthens Rossby waves, altering monsoon patterns.
Barents-Kara Sea Ice Decline
- Pressure Impact: Low sea ice increases pressure over southwest China, causing more rain in northeastern India.
- Rainfall Shift: Central and northwest India experience less rain.
Climate Change
- Warming Arabian Sea: Adds moisture to the atmosphere, worsening monsoon unpredictability.
Rain Surplus In Northwestern India
Moisture from Arabian Sea:
- More moisture inflow from Arabian Sea increases rainfall.
- Expected to continue with higher emissions.
Wind Changes:
- Faster winds over Arabian Sea, slower winds over northern India.
- Traps moisture in northwestern India, increasing rainfall.
Pressure Gradients:
- Higher pressure around Mascarene Islands, lower in equatorial Indian Ocean.
- Strengthens monsoon winds bringing more rain to northwest India.
Amplified Winds:
- East-west pressure gradient, influenced by high pressure in the Pacific.
- Could lead to even wetter future monsoons.
Rossby Waves
- Large-scale atmospheric waves in mid-latitudes.
- Form in jet streams and influence global weather patterns.
- Help balance global heat distribution.
Indian Summer Monsoon Rainfall (ISMR)
Overview
- Monsoon occurs from July to September.
- Most rain is recorded in July and August.
Formation
- The sun heats Central Asia and India faster than the ocean.
- This creates a low-pressure zone, drawing in moisture-laden winds.
Monsoon Split
- The southwest monsoon splits into two parts.
- One arm rains on the west coast, while the other affects the east and northeast.
Importance Of Monsoon For India
Agriculture:
- Monsoon is essential for 61% of farmers.
- Supports 55% of rain-fed crops.
Water Resources:
- India gets 70-90% of its rainfall during the monsoon.
- Replenishes rivers, lakes, groundwater.
Economy:
- Good monsoon boosts rural incomes and demand.
- Poor monsoon leads to inflation and economic challenges.
Ecology:
- Monsoon supports ecosystems and biodiversity.
- Changes in monsoon patterns disrupt flora and fauna.
Arctic Ocean Overview
- Smallest ocean, centered around the North Pole.
- Bordered by countries like Canada, Russia, and Norway.
- Covered by sea ice, with seasonal melting and freezing.
- Holds 13% of undiscovered oil and 30% of natural gas reserves.
Shivaji Maharaj Statue Collapse
- A 35-foot statue of Shivaji Maharaj, unveiled in Malvan, collapsed within a year.
- Sindhudurg Fort, built by Shivaji Maharaj 357 years ago, still stands strong.
Significant Features of Sindhudurg Fort
- Construction Timeline: Started on 25th November 1664 and completed on 29th March 1667.
- Strategic Location: Built on the Kurte island in the Arabian Sea.
- Expense and Currency: Construction cost was one crore hons, a gold coin used in the 17th century.
- Maritime Control: Fort built to secure maritime routes and protect from foreign forces.
- Architectural Brilliance: The fort has a 4 km long serpentine wall, 45 stairways, and guard facilities.
- Historical Significance: Supported by smaller forts for additional protection and remains a symbol of Maratha naval power.
Shivaji’s Raids on Surat: Disrupting Mughal Dominance
- Surat’s Importance: A major Mughal trade hub, linking Europe, Iran, and Arabia.
- First Raid on Surat (1664): Shivaji seized wealth worth one crore rupees, funding Sindhudurg Fort and the Maratha Navy.
- Consequences: The English shifted their warehouse from Surat to Bombay. The Portuguese handed Bombay to the English.
- Second Raid on Surat (1670): Shivaji raided again, collecting wealth worth Rs 6.6 million.
- Strategic Outcome: Raids destabilized the Mughal economy while sparing civilians, showcasing Maratha strength.
Key Highlights Of Shivaji Maharaj’s Life
Birth and Early Life:
Born on 19th February 1630 at Shivneri Fort. Took control of Torna Fort in his teens.
Major Battles:
- Pratapgad (1659)
- Surat (1664)
- Purandar (1665)
- Sangamner (1679)
Death:
Passed away on 3rd April 1680 at Raigad after a prolonged illness.
Military Triumphs Of Shivaji Maharaj
- Battle of Pratapgad (1659): Between Shivaji’s forces and Adilshahi general Afzal Khan.
- Battle of Surat (1664): Between Shivaji and Mughal Governor Inayat Khan.
- Battle of Purandar (1665): Shivaji faced Mughal commander Jai Singh.
- Battle of Sangamner (1679): The last battle in which Shivaji fought the Mughal Empire.
Shivaji’s Coronation And Titles
Crowned as the Maratha king on 6th June 1674 at Raigad. Took titles such as Chhatrapati, Shakakarta, Kshatriya Kulavantas, and Haindava Dharmodhhaarak.
Governance and Administration Under Shivaji
Central Administration: Aided by the ‘Ashtapradhan’ (a council of eight ministers).
Revenue System: Income sources included Chauth (1/4th of revenue demand) and Sardeshmukhi (an additional 10% levy on hereditary land).
The Marathas After Shivaji’s Demise
- Post-Shivaji Turbulence: Shivaji’s son Sambhaji ascended but was captured and executed in 1689.
- Rise of the Peshwas: Balaji Vishwanath became Peshwa in 1713, strengthening the Maratha Empire.
- Maratha Confederacy: An alliance of Maratha states led by Peshwas, Holkars, Gaekwads, and Scindhias.
Maratha Struggles Against British Forces
- First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-1782): Concluded with the Treaty of Salbai, giving Salsette Island to the British.
- Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-1805): The Marathas were forced into the Subsidiary Alliance.
- Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1818): Marked the final defeat of the Marathas and the dissolution of the Maratha Empire.