2. Its launch vehicle, the human-rated LVM3 (HLVM3), is a three-stage rocket.
3. On success, India would become the fourth nation to independently launch humans into space.
4. It is India’s first human spaceflight, including those undertaken with foreign launch vehicles.
S1 – Correct. Crew of three, ~400 km orbit, duration 3–7 days.
S2 – Correct. HLVM3 is the human-rated version of LVM3, a three-stage rocket (solid, liquid, cryogenic).
S3 – Correct. Success will make India the 4th nation after USA, Russia, and China.
S4 – Incorrect. It is the first indigenous human spaceflight; Rakesh Sharma already went aboard a Soviet Soyuz in 1984.
Answer: (b) 1, 2 and 3 only
The Gaganyaan Mission is India’s first human spaceflight program being developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). It aims to demonstrate the ability to send astronauts to space and bring them back safely. The mission involves placing a three-member crew in a low Earth orbit of about 400 km for 3 to 7 days, followed by a safe sea splashdown recovery.
The first crewed flight is expected no earlier than 2027, following a series of uncrewed test flights scheduled through 2025.
Key Features of the Gaganyaan MissionCrew and Orbit: A three-person crewed spacecraft will be launched into a 400 km low Earth orbit for around 3 days. The spacecraft will return with a controlled sea landing in Indian waters.
National Milestone: This will be India’s first indigenous human spaceflight mission, making the country the fourth in the world—after the USA, Russia, and China—to achieve independent crewed space travel.
Technology Development: The program involves building human-rated launch vehicles, life support systems, crew escape mechanisms, and advanced astronaut training facilities.
Uncrewed Test Flights: Several precursor missions will validate critical technologies such as the Integrated Air Drop Test (IADT) and Pad Abort Test.
Astronaut Training: Indian astronauts have undergone extensive training in both Russia and India.
Cost of the Program: The estimated budget for Gaganyaan is around ₹10,000 crore.
Spacecraft Design: The spacecraft consists of a Crew Module (for astronauts) and a Service Module (for propulsion and power supply).
Wider Impact: The mission is expected to strengthen India’s space technology ecosystem, promote industry collaboration, and inspire future generations.
In August 2025, ISRO successfully completed the first Integrated Air Drop Test (IADT), a key step in recovery technology.
The uncrewed Gaganyaan-1 test flight, carrying the humanoid robot Vyommitra, is planned for late 2025.
The first crewed flight is tentatively targeted between 2026 and 2027.
The mission is now in its final integration phase, with extensive testing of crew modules, escape systems, and recovery drills conducted in collaboration with the Indian Navy.
Significance of the MissionThe Gaganyaan Mission marks a historic leap in India’s space capabilities. It blends indigenous expertise with international collaboration and industry participation. Beyond demonstrating human spaceflight, it will lay the foundation for future long-term human missions, including exploration of the Moon and Mars.
S1 – Correct. RGM (2014) is not just for breed improvement but also supports Gokul Grams (integrated cattle development centres).
S2 – Correct. Genomic chips allow early identification of genetic merit, without waiting for bulls to reach physical maturity.
S3 – Correct. GAUCHIP → cattle; MAHISHCHIP → buffaloes.
S4 – Incorrect. Bharat Pashudhan App is an integrated digital livestock platform covering identification, breeding, and health—not restricted to milk yield.
Answer: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only
Pair 1 — Correct: The Kursk region lies within the drainage basins of the Dnieper and Don rivers.
Pair 2 — Correct: Volgograd lies on the banks of the Volga River, the longest in Europe.
Pair 3 — Incorrect: Kharkiv lies in the basin of the Udy and Seversky Donets (tributary of Don), not the Dniester.
Pair 4 — Correct: Gomel in Belarus is situated along the Sozh River, a tributary of the Dnieper.
Thus, three pairs are correctly matched (1, 2, and 4).
Answer: (c) Only three
| List I | List II |
|---|---|
| 1. Kalpana Datta | A. Founded Sharada Sadan for widows |
| 2. Annie Besant | B. Took part in the Chittagong Armoury Raid |
| 3. Pandita Ramabai | C. First woman to contest a legislative seat in Madras |
| 4. Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay | D. First woman President of Indian National Congress (1917) |
| 5. Bhikaiji Cama | E. Hoisted the first nationalist flag abroad (Germany, 1907) |
• Kalpana Datta → B: Associated with Surya Sen and the Chittagong Armoury Raid (1930).
• Annie Besant → D: First woman president of INC, Calcutta session, 1917.
• Pandita Ramabai → A: Founded Sharada Sadan in 1889 for child widows.
• Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay → C: First Indian woman to contest a legislative seat (Madras, 1926).
• Bhikaiji Cama → E: Hoisted the nationalist flag at Stuttgart, Germany, in 1907.
Correct Answer: (a) 1–B, 2–D, 3–A, 4–C, 5–E
Statement 1 — Correct: She was widely called Gandhi Buri (“old lady Gandhi”).
Statement 2 — Correct: She was shot thrice while leading a Quit India march at Tamluk in 1942.
Statement 3 — Incorrect: The INA was founded in Singapore under Rash Behari Bose/Subhas Chandra Bose; Matangini Hazra never went abroad nor was she connected with the INA.
Statement 4 — Correct: She had taken part in the Non-Cooperation and Salt Satyagraha, facing arrests and injuries.
Thus, the correct answer is 1, 2 and 4 only.
Answer: (a) 1, 2 and 4 only
The history of India’s independence struggle is filled with the courage and vision of women who challenged colonial rule and social oppression. These leaders not only fought for freedom but also championed reforms in education, culture, and women’s rights.
Early Queens and RebelsRani Lakshmibai of Jhansi: A fearless warrior-queen who became a symbol of resistance in the Revolt of 1857, fighting against British expansionist policies like the Doctrine of Lapse.
Rani Chennamma of Kittur: The Queen of Kitturu in Karnataka who defied British authority as early as 1824, leading one of the first female-led uprisings in India when her adopted son’s succession was denied.
Savitribai Phule: India’s trailblazing woman teacher who championed girls’ education, fought child marriage and caste prejudice, and supported widow remarriage.
Pandita Ramabai: Founded Sharada Sadan for widows, advanced women’s education and suffrage, and opposed child marriage.
Fatima Sheikh: Worked alongside Savitribai Phule to pioneer girls’ education, laying the foundation for women’s empowerment in India.
Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain: A visionary reformer and writer who imagined a feminist utopia in her novella Sultana’s Dream, advocating women’s leadership, education, and rational progress.
Kamala Das Gupta: Apart from her underground revolutionary role, she opened schools for Muslim girls in Kolkata and encouraged education for daughters in conservative households.
Labanya Prabha Ghosh: Believed literacy was a weapon of resistance; she organised rural reading groups, contributed to nationalist journals, and hosted secret political meetings.
Sarojini Naidu: The first Indian woman to lead the Indian National Congress; played key roles in the Salt March, Civil Disobedience, and Quit India movements.
Sucheta Kripalani: A participant in freedom movements who later became the first woman Chief Minister of an Indian state (Uttar Pradesh).
Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay: A reformer and political activist from Mangalore who shaped the All India Women’s Conference (AIWC), contested elections in colonial Madras, and persuaded Gandhi to include women in the Salt Satyagraha.
Annie Besant: A British-born reformer who became a leading Indian nationalist; she founded the Madras Home Rule League and was elected the first woman Congress President in 1917.
Kamala Nehru: Actively participated in non-cooperation campaigns alongside her husband Jawaharlal Nehru.
Kasturba Gandhi: Partnered with Mahatma Gandhi in satyagraha, civil disobedience, and faced imprisonment for the cause of freedom.
Rani Gaidinliu: Joined the Heraka Movement at just 13 and, after her cousin Haipou Jadonang’s execution, led a rebellion against the British while asserting Naga cultural identity.
Bhikaiji Cama: A fiery nationalist in exile who unfurled the first version of India’s flag in Germany and campaigned for independence abroad.
Aruna Asaf Ali: Famously hoisted the Congress flag during the Quit India Movement in 1942, earning the title “Heroine of 1942.”
Usha Mehta: Secretly operated Congress Radio during the Quit India Movement, broadcasting banned messages of resistance.
Matangini Hazra (Gandhi Buri): Elderly freedom fighter who led Quit India protests; she was shot while holding the tricolour and chanting “Vande Mataram,” becoming a martyr of the people.
Bina Das: Attempted to assassinate Bengal’s Governor Stanley Jackson in 1932; also resisted colonial and patriarchal structures through symbolic protests like wearing khadi and distributing banned literature.
Pritilata Waddedar: Led the armed attack on the Pahartali European Club in 1932 and embraced martyrdom to defy racial segregation.
Kalpana Datta: Actively involved in the Chittagong Armoury Raid and highlighted women’s equal contribution to armed resistance.
Rukmini Devi Arundale: Revived Bharatanatyam and other Indian classical arts, reinforcing cultural identity during the freedom movement.
Aruna Roy: A contemporary activist best known for championing the Right to Information (RTI) Act, ensuring transparency and accountability in governance.
Statement 1 — Correct: Both ships revive historic names — earlier INS Himgiri (1974) and INS Udaygiri (1976).
Statement 2 — Correct: INS Himgiri is the first P-17A stealth frigate.
Statement 3 — Correct: INS Udaygiri is the second P-17A stealth frigate.
Statement 4 — Incorrect: Project 17A ships are the Nilgiri class, not Shivalik class (Shivalik belongs to Project 17).
Statement 5 — Incorrect: Project 17A has seven ships, not five.
Therefore, four statements (1, 2, 3, and the corrected fact against 4/5) are correct → Answer: (c) Only four.
Answer: (c) Only four
On August 26, the Indian Navy commissioned two Nilgiri-class stealth guided-missile frigates—INS Udaygiri and INS Himgiri—in a twin induction ceremony at Visakhapatnam.
Project 17A: Advanced Stealth FrigatesThe Nilgiri-class frigates form part of Project 17 Alpha (P-17A), a program aimed at building next-generation stealth warships.
These vessels are the successors of the Shivalik-class (Project 17) frigates, which are already operational.
INS Nilgiri, commissioned in January 2025, was the first of seven ships planned under Project 17A.
Of the seven frigates under this class, construction responsibilities are shared:
Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Ltd. (MDL): Nilgiri, Udaygiri, Taragiri, Mahendragiri
Garden Reach Shipbuilders & Engineers (GRSE): Himgiri, Dunagiri, Vindhyagiri
Nearly 75% of the equipment and systems for these frigates have been sourced from Indian firms, underlining the program’s indigenous emphasis.
The ships are built using an “integrated construction” methodology, where extensive pre-outfitting is done at the block stage to shorten overall construction timelines.
Both newly commissioned ships carry forward the heritage of earlier warships:
INS Udaygiri: 1976
INS Himgiri: 1974
These earlier vessels participated in key operations, including Operation Pawan, Operation Cactus, and Operation Sahayata, leaving behind a significant operational legacy.
Statement 1: Correct
Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth) is one of the world’s most invasive plants.
It blocks sunlight, reduces dissolved oxygen, and clogs waterways, affecting fish and other aquatic biodiversity.
In India, it is a major threat to wetlands and reservoirs.
Statement 2: Correct
While Lantana camara is a notorious invasive weed in Indian forests, it has been put to some limited use in furniture-making, handicrafts, and even erosion control in some tribal and rural regions.
Statement 3: Correct
These two species have collectively caused huge economic damage worldwide estimated at $16 billion between 1986 and 2020, including crop damage, power outages, and ecological harm.
Statement 4: Incorrect
Zebra mussels are not crop pests; they mainly clog water intake pipes, affecting industries and power plants.
Pink Bollworm is indeed an agricultural pest of cotton, but combining it with zebra mussels as “crop pests” makes the statement wrong.
Correct Answer: (b) 1, 2 and 3 only
• Statement 1 — Incorrect: It was discovered by Maryame El Moutamid’s team using JWST (NIRCam), not Hubble.
• Statement 2 — Correct: Lies between Ophelia and Bianca.
• Statement 3 — Correct: Orbital period ≈ 9.6 hours.
• Statement 4 — Incorrect: Lies outside Uranus’s inner ring system.
So, two statements are correct (2 and 3).
Answer: (b) Only two
• Statement 1 — Correct: JWST mirror = 6.5 m; Hubble = 2.4 m → ~6 times light-collecting area.
• Statement 2 — Incorrect: JWST mainly observes in infrared (0.6–28.5 microns), not ultraviolet.
• Statement 3 — Correct: Operates near Sun-Earth L2, ~1.5 million km away.
• Statement 4 — Incorrect: L1–L3 are unstable; L4–L5 are stable.
Answer: (a) 1 and 3 only
Discovery of Uranus’s 29th Moon
Astronomers have confirmed the 29th moon of Uranus, provisionally named S/2025 U1. The discovery was made on February 2, 2025, by a team led by Maryame El Moutamid, using the Near-Infrared Camera (NIRCam) aboard the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST).
Key Characteristics
- Size: Estimated diameter between 8–10 km (about 6 miles).
- Orbit: Lies 56,250 km (around 35,000 miles) from Uranus’s center.
- Orbital Period: Completes a revolution in approximately 9.6 hours.
- Position: Moves between the orbits of Uranus’s moons Ophelia and Bianca.
- Trajectory: Nearly circular and aligned with Uranus’s equatorial plane.
- Visibility: Too faint and small to be detected by Voyager 2 and Hubble.
The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)
- Design: Largest and most advanced space telescope ever launched.
- Primary Mirror: 6.5 meters wide, six times Hubble’s light-collecting power.
- Observation Range: Works mainly in the infrared spectrum (0.6–28.5 microns).
- Scientific Reach: Can look back 13.5 billion years, exploring galaxies, stars, exoplanets, and cosmic evolution.
Orbit and Functioning
- Location: Positioned at the Earth-Sun L2 Lagrange point, about 1.5 million km from Earth.
- Orbit: Maintains a halo orbit around L2, ensuring thermal stability.
- Sunshield: Five-layer shield keeps instruments below 50 Kelvin, blocking solar, Earth, and lunar radiation.
International Collaboration
JWST is a joint mission led by NASA with contributions from ESA and CSA. Since its launch in December 2021, it has produced breakthroughs such as imaging black holes in obscured galaxies and studying interstellar objects in our solar system.
Lagrange Points
JWST’s position is enabled by the special properties of Lagrange points.
- Gravitational pull of Earth and Sun balances centripetal force, allowing stable positioning with minimal fuel.
- There are five points (L1–L5):
- L1, L2, L3: Along the Earth–Sun line; unstable without adjustments.
- L4, L5: Form equilateral triangles with Earth and Sun; stable locations.
JWST operates at L2, giving it an uninterrupted view of deep space while remaining shielded from direct sunlight and Earth’s radiation.