- Option (a) is incorrect — it describes seed dormancy, not vivipary.
- Option (c) is incorrect — mangroves do not primarily rely on animals for dispersal.
- Option (d) is misleading — while propagules may remain enclosed for a time, vivipary involves external seedling development.
Correct Answer: (b) Seeds undergo germination while still attached to the parent plant and fall as partially grown seedlings.
Vivipary in mangrove ecosystems refers to the phenomenon where seeds begin to germinate while still attached to the mother plant. This adaptation allows the propagules (young seedlings) to grow and develop before detaching from the parent, enhancing their chances of successful establishment in the challenging intertidal, saline environments typical of mangroves.
1. The Kutch district alone accounts for more than half of Gujarat’s total mangrove cover.
2. Bhitarkanika is the second-largest contiguous mangrove forest in India after the Sundarbans.
3. The Gulf of Mannar hosts the largest mangrove expanse on the western coast of India.
- Statement 1 – Correct: Kutch district has 794 sq km of mangroves out of Gujarat’s total 1,177 sq km, which is indeed more than half.
- Statement 2 – Correct: Bhitarkanika, located in Odisha, is acknowledged as the second-largest mangrove ecosystem in India, after the Sundarbans.
- Statement 3 – Incorrect: The Gulf of Mannar (Tamil Nadu) has mangroves, but the largest mangrove expanses on the western coast are in Gujarat, specifically the Gulf of Kutch and Gulf of Khambhat. So this statement is factually incorrect.
Correct Answer: (b) Only two
Mangrove Distribution in India
Mangroves are found across 123 countries and territories, predominantly in tropical and subtropical regions. These coastal ecosystems thrive in intertidal zones where saline water and sediment accumulation create a unique environment.
According to the Indian State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2023, India has approximately 4,992 square kilometres of mangrove forests. This accounts for about 0.15% of the nation’s total geographical area.
State-wise Distribution
- West Bengal has the largest mangrove cover in India, primarily due to the Sundarbans.
- Gujarat ranks second, with an estimated 1,177 sq km of mangrove forests, mainly concentrated around the Gulf of Kutch and Gulf of Khambhat.
- Within Gujarat, Kutch district hosts the largest share, covering around 794 sq km.
- Significant mangrove areas are also found in Andhra Pradesh (especially the Godavari-Krishna delta), Kerala, and the Andaman Islands.
Prominent Mangrove Forests
- The Sundarbans, straddling the border between India and Bangladesh, constitute the largest contiguous mangrove forest in the world.
- Bhitarkanika, located in Odisha, is the second largest mangrove forest in India.
1. Mangrove soils act as long-term carbon reservoirs due to high rates of organic matter burial and minimal microbial decomposition.
2. Carbon stored in mangrove soils remains largely unaffected even after the destruction or removal of above-ground vegetation.
3. In contrast to terrestrial forests, most of the carbon in mangrove ecosystems is sequestered below ground rather than in biomass.
4. The high salinity of mangrove soils accelerates the breakdown of organic carbon, leading to faster nutrient cycling.
- Statement 1 – Correct: Mangrove soils are anoxic (oxygen-poor) and saline, both of which limit microbial activity. This leads to high carbon burial rates and long-term storage of organic matter.
- Statement 2 – Incorrect: If mangroves are destroyed or removed, the protective effect of the standing vegetation is lost. This often leads to oxidation of soil organic carbon and rapid release of stored carbon into the atmosphere.
- Statement 3 – Correct: Unlike terrestrial forests where a large portion of carbon is stored in above-ground biomass, mangroves store up to 75%–90% of their carbon below ground, primarily in the soil.
- Statement 4 – Incorrect: High salinity inhibits microbial activity, thereby slowing down decomposition. It does not accelerate breakdown or nutrient cycling — in fact, it enhances long-term carbon storage.
Correct Answer: (b) Only two.
1. The Mangrove Alliance for Climate (MAC) is a multilateral platform focused on coordinated national strategies for mangrove restoration, with India and Indonesia as founding members.
2. The MISHTI scheme aims to integrate mangrove conservation with livelihood generation, particularly in ecologically sensitive coastal regions.
3. The Mangroves for the Future (MFF) initiative is limited to South and Southeast Asian countries and is co-chaired by UNEP and IUCN.
4. The SAIME project in West Bengal is designed to promote aquaculture in mangrove zones without compromising the ecological integrity of the ecosystem.
- Statement 1 – Incorrect: MAC is a multilateral platform, yes — but India was not a founding member. The alliance was launched by the UAE and Indonesia at COP27; India joined later. So the statement is factually incorrect due to the mention of “India as founding member.”
- Statement 2 – Correct: The MISHTI scheme does emphasize livelihood generation (tangible incomes) in addition to shoreline protection and ecosystem conservation, especially in ecologically sensitive coastal areas. This is correct.
- Statement 3 – Incorrect: MFF is indeed focused on South and Southeast Asia and co-chaired by IUCN and UNDP, not UNEP. This is a subtle factual error that makes the statement incorrect.
- Statement 4 – Correct: SAIME (Sustainable Aquaculture in Mangrove Ecosystem) is a West Bengal government initiative promoting sustainable aquaculture within mangrove zones, with an emphasis on ecological balance — this is accurate.
Final Answer: (b) Only two
1. Indonesia hosts the largest area of mangrove forests in the world.
2. Southeast Asia supports the highest number of true mangrove species globally.
3. Asia accounts for more than one-third of the world’s total mangrove area.
4. Brazil ranks second globally in terms of mangrove species richness after Indonesia.
- Statement 1 – Correct: Indonesia is the largest mangrove-holding country in the world, accounting for 26–29% of global mangrove cover.
- Statement 2 – Correct: Southeast Asia (especially the Indonesia–Malaysia–Philippines–PNG region) has the highest mangrove species richness, often exceeding 30–40 true species.
- Statement 3 – Correct: Asia contains about 39% of the global mangrove area — which is indeed more than one-third.
- Statement 4 – Incorrect: While Brazil has the second-largest mangrove area after Indonesia, it is not second in mangrove species richness. The greatest species richness is found in Southeast Asia (especially Indonesia and Malaysia), and Brazil’s mangroves have far fewer true mangrove species compared to Southeast Asia.
Correct Answer: (c) Only three
1. Mangroves serve as natural barriers against coastal erosion and saline water intrusion into inland areas.
2. They contribute significantly to carbon sequestration, with a major portion stored in below-ground biomass and sediments.
3. The Sundarbans is the only mangrove site in India designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
4. The Pichavaram mangroves, known for their biodiversity, are located in the Godavari-Krishna delta region.
- Statement 1 – Correct: Mangroves act as natural buffers, protecting the coast from erosion, tidal surges, and saline intrusion into agricultural and freshwater areas.
- Statement 2 – Correct: Mangroves are among the most efficient blue carbon ecosystems, with most carbon stored in soil and below-ground biomass (not primarily in trunks or branches).
- Statement 3 – Correct: Only the Sundarbans (West Bengal) is part of the UNESCO World Heritage list. Other important mangrove areas like Bhitarkanika and Pichavaram are not WHS sites.
- Statement 4 – Incorrect: While Pichavaram mangroves are renowned for biodiversity, they are located in Tamil Nadu, in the Vellar-Coleroon estuary (Cauvery delta region), not in the Godavari-Krishna delta region which is in Andhra Pradesh.
Correct Answer: (c) Only three