Since the devastation of Hiroshima, the world has witnessed sustained attempts to limit and eliminate nuclear weapons. A series of treaties, mechanisms, and advocacy initiatives have shaped the global framework of nuclear governance.
India’s nuclear policy has developed alongside these efforts, balancing security imperatives with a long-standing commitment to universal and non-discriminatory disarmament.
Major Multilateral Treaties
- Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT): Opened in 1968 and in force from 1970, the NPT aims to curb nuclear proliferation, encourage peaceful nuclear applications, and promote disarmament. It rests on three pillars—non-proliferation, disarmament, and peaceful use of nuclear energy. Reviewed every five years and extended indefinitely in 1995, it has 191 members as of 2025, making it the most widely accepted arms control treaty. Its provisions prohibit nuclear transfer by weapon states, acquisition by non-weapon states, and mandate negotiations for disarmament.
- Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT): Adopted in 1996 to ban nuclear explosions for military or civilian purposes. Although widely respected, it has not entered into force due to the absence of ratification by key states.
- Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW): Adopted in 2017 and enforced in 2021, this is the first global agreement to comprehensively ban development, possession, and use of nuclear weapons while charting a path for their elimination. By 2023, sixty-eight states had ratified it, though none of the recognized nuclear powers are participants.
Initiatives and Mechanisms for Control
- Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG): Established export restrictions to prevent states from acquiring nuclear weapons capability.
- IAEA Additional Protocol: Strengthened safeguards and verification measures to block diversion of nuclear materials.
- Fissile Material Cut-off Treaty (FMCT): Proposed treaty to prohibit further production of weapon-grade fissile material, still under negotiation.
- Non-Proliferation and Disarmament Initiative (NPDI): Formed in 2010 by non-nuclear states led by Japan and Australia, working to advance transparency and disarmament.
Regional and Bilateral Agreements
- US–Russia Arms Control: A series of accords, including the START treaties, New START, and INF Treaty, have contributed to reductions in deployed arsenals since the Cold War.
- Japanese Advocacy: Japan, being the only nation subjected to atomic bombings, continues to advance initiatives such as the “Japan Chair for a world without nuclear weapons” and active participation in NPT and NPDI processes.
Persistent Challenges
- Non-Participants: India, Israel, and Pakistan never joined the NPT, while North Korea withdrew and maintains nuclear weapons.
- Non-Participation in TPNW: Major nuclear-armed states have not joined the prohibition treaty.
- Stalled Disarmament: Global progress has slowed, and nuclear modernization by key states continues.
India’s Stand On Global Nuclear Disarmament
Core Position
- India states that the highest global priority must be the complete elimination of nuclear weapons, but insists this must be achieved through a universal, non-discriminatory, and verifiable, step-by-step multilateral framework agreed by consensus.
- India supports commencing negotiations on a comprehensive Nuclear Weapons Convention in the Conference on Disarmament (CD), which it views as the sole multilateral disarmament negotiating forum.
Nuclear Doctrine
India maintains a doctrine of credible minimum deterrence with a No First Use posture and non-use against non-nuclear-weapon states, while reserving the option to use nuclear weapons in response to a major attack with chemical or biological weapons.
Position On Key Treaties And Processes
- NPT (Non-Proliferation Treaty): India rejects joining the NPT as a non-nuclear-weapon state, describing itself as a responsible nuclear-weapon state pending global, non-discriminatory disarmament, and opposes UN resolutions calling for its accession in that status.
- TPNW (Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons): India did not participate in negotiations, does not accept that the TPNW contributes to customary international law, and will not be bound by it.
- CTBT (Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty): India upholds a unilateral moratorium on nuclear explosive testing but has not joined the CTBT and has opposed operative language urging adherence in UN votes.
- FMCT (Fissile Material Cut-off Treaty): India supports starting FMCT negotiations in the CD on the Shannon Mandate (CD/1299), and does not accept calls for a production moratorium outside a negotiated treaty.
- Health/other fora: India argues nuclear-weapons consequences should be handled in disarmament forums, not bodies like the WHO; it abstained on a 2025 WHA draft on nuclear war and public health.
Policy Framing and Voting Behavior
- India regularly reiterates at the UN that it is committed to universal, verifiable disarmament and favors progressive, consensus-based steps over bans perceived as non-inclusive or discriminatory.
- Explanations of vote show a pattern: support for disarmament goals but opposition or abstention when texts reference joining the NPT as a non-nuclear-weapon state, endorse the TPNW, call for fissile material moratoria, or press CTBT adherence.
Recent Official Articulations (2024–2025)
In 2024 UN First Committee statements and 2025 interventions, India reaffirmed credible minimum deterrence with No First Use, non-use against non-nuclear states, advocacy for CD-based negotiations, and non-acceptance of TPNW obligations.
India emphasizes being a “responsible nuclear-weapon state” and frames disarmament as requiring equitable participation and verification rather than unilateral constraints
Historical Evolution of India’s Policy
- Early Advocacy (1947–1970s): India called for complete disarmament and abstained from developing weapons. The 1988 Rajiv Gandhi Action Plan reinforced this vision.
- Security-Driven Transition (1960s onward): China’s nuclear tests and Pakistan’s growing capability compelled India to reconsider its security dependence on disarmament ideals.
- Peaceful Nuclear Explosion (1974): First test presented as peaceful, marking India’s nuclear threshold entry.
- Formal Weaponization (1998): Pokhran-II declared India a nuclear-weapon state. Official doctrine followed, emphasizing NFU, credible minimum deterrence, and civilian oversight.
- Responsible Stewardship (2000s): India maintained voluntary moratorium on testing, joined FMCT negotiations, and built a nuclear triad including submarine-based deterrence.
- International Engagement (2008 onward): The Indo–US nuclear deal reflected recognition of India’s responsible nuclear status. India continues voluntary commitments while rejecting discriminatory treaties.
- Contemporary Policy: India maintains NFU, credible deterrence, and support for multilateral disarmament while resisting frameworks that undermine its security autonomy.
Current Strategic Challenges
- Regional Pressures: Pakistan’s tactical nuclear posture and China’s expanding arsenal raise security risks, including possible two-front scenarios.
- Global Instability: Suspension of arms control frameworks, nuclear rhetoric in conflicts, and disruptive technologies like hypersonics and cyber warfare complicate the nuclear order.