Internal migration is an important factor in the efficient allocation of resources within a country. In India, with its population of over 1.3 billion people, internal migration has seen remarkable growth in recent years.
According to 2011 census data, the number of internal migrants increased by 45% since 2001 and now stands at 450 million people – significantly higher than the population growth rate of 18%.
This means that 37% of Indians are now considered internal migrants – up from 30% ten years ago. Clearly, this movement of people within India has had a significant impact on our society and economy.
Overview Of Migration
- Migration is a phenomenon that has been around since the dawn of time, with people moving from one place to another for a variety of reasons.
- In recent years, internal (within country) and international (across countries) migration has seen an increase in India as per the 2011 Census.
- The 2011 Census data shows that 45.6 crore migrants were recorded in India in 2011, which constituted 38% of the total population; an increase by 45% when compared to 31.5 crore migrants recorded in 2001 census figures representing 31% of the total population.
It is noteworthy that 99% of all migrations within India were internal while immigrants only accounted for 1%.
Patterns Of Migration
- In India, migration patterns have been shifting in recent years. According to the 2011 census, over 21 crore people have migrated internally, and much of this has been from rural to rural areas. This accounted for 54% of all classifiable internal migration.
- Around 8 crore people moved either from rural to urban or urban to urban areas.
- Urban-rural migration accounted for 7% of the total internal migration in 2011, with 3 crore people making this journey.
- As far as inter-state movement is concerned, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar have been the largest sources of migrants in recent years, while Maharashtra and Delhi have received the most inter-state migrants.
- In 2011, there were 5.4 crore inter-state migrants. Around 83 lakh residents of Uttar Pradesh and 63 lakh residents of Bihar had moved either temporarily or permanently to other states by 2011.
- 60 lakh people from across India had migrated to Maharashtra by 2011.
It is important to note that intra-state migration accounted for almost 88% of all internal migration (39.6 crore persons).
Low Rate Of Inter-State Migration
- In India, the rate of inter-state migration is significantly lower than other forms of internal migration.
- According to the 2011 census, only 12% of all internal migration is inter-state, while the majority (62%) is within the same district and another 26% between districts within the same state.
- In India, most people move within the same state rather than to a different one.
- One study revealed that 87.5% of people who moved for work in 2020-2021 moved within the same state and only 11.8% moved to another state.
- Many of these people are short distance movers, only staying somewhere for a little while, and come from poorer families.
- Short-distance migrants usually engage in seasonal movements, and are employed temporarily.
Remember This: According to the 2011 census, around 51 million people migrated within India which represents approximately 10% of the nation’s workforce.
A World Bank paper, using 2001 census data, attributes the low rate of internal migration to:
- Non-portability of entitlements (such as the Public Distribution System)
- Preferential norms in educational institutions
- Domicile requirements for state government jobs
Solutions: Focus on providing better public transportation and more affordable housing in host states could also help to encourage inter-state movement. Ultimately, the goal should be to foster greater mobility and collaboration between states while helping to ensure that everyone has access to the opportunities they need to reach their full potential.
Educational Background Of Migrants
The educational background of migrants is an important indicator of socio-economic development in any region. Census data provides detailed information related to the educational background of migrants, classified by age and sex.
- Analysis of this data indicates that around 10-15% of male migrants and 30% of female migrants are illiterate in the age group 15-29 years and 30-59 years.
- 33% of the migrants, regardless of gender, were literate but below matriculation level.
- Among young male migrants, the percentage that obtained matriculation was 40%, while among young female migrants, only about 24% achieved this level of education.
- Of the migrants between the ages of 30 and 59, only 25% of males and 17% of females had obtained a graduate degree.
Solutions
- Migration is an important factor that influences educational attainment, as most migrants move in search of better job prospects. Thus, it is important to provide quality education to all sections of the population so that they are able to take advantage of improved job opportunities.
- Migration can also be used as a tool to improve the socio-economic status of migrants by providing them with better educational and employment opportunities. This will help in reducing poverty levels among migrant populations, leading to overall development of society.
- Furthermore, governments need to create more effective policies that promote education and economic growth through targeted investment in migrant populations. This will ensure that they are able to achieve higher levels of socio-economic development and contribute significantly to the nation’s overall growth.
Categorization Of Migrants By Degree Of Vulnerability
- People who move to another state are more likely to face different kinds of risks than people who just move within their state.
- Migration incidental to birth does not bring in any vulnerability.
- Marriage migration is not a problem for women who marry someone from a different state, however it can be challenging for them to receive support from their family because of the distance from their natal home.
- People who migrate to other states for education also don’t generally face any discrimination.
- Situations are worse for people who move for work or business to other states.
- If someone brings their whole family with them when they go somewhere else then they are in the same situation as those moving for work or business.
Issues Faced By Migrant Labour
People who move to another place for work have some difficulties. They don’t get social security or health benefits like other people. The law that sets minimum safety standards is not followed well. Lack of portability of state-provided benefits, especially food provided through the public distribution system (PDS) is another challenge.
Migrants also have trouble finding affordable houses and places with basic things they need in cities.
Poor Implementation Of ISMW Act
- Migrant workers play a crucial role in the Indian economy; however, the only legislation created to assist them since independence is the Interstate Migrant Workmen Act of 1979.
- The ISMW Act includes protections for inter-state migrant workers. Labour contractors who hire migrant workers must follow certain requirements. These are: (i) be licensed, (ii) register migrant workers with the government authorities, and (iii) arrange for the worker to be issued a passbook recording their identity.
- The law also provides instructions on the wages and protections that the contractor must offer, which include accommodation, free medical facilities, and protective clothing.
- However, protections under the Inter-State Migrant Workmen Act, 1979 (ISMW Act) have been poorly implemented.
- In December 2011, a report from the Standing Committee on Labour said that not many workers were registered under the ISMW Act and protections in the Act were not being used. The Central government was not doing enough to make sure people working for contractors and employers could get help from the Act.
- Other labour laws in the country do not consider the perspective of migrant workers and may not adequately tackle the issues that they face.
Also Read | Role Of Self-Help Groups In Women’s Empowerment
Lack Of Portability Of Benefits
- Migrants often fail to access benefits under the Public Distribution System (PDS) due to the lack of portability of benefits.
- Ration cards, which are required to access entitlements under the PDS, are usually issued by state governments and are not transferable to other states.
- This means that inter-state migrants are unable to access the benefits of PDS unless they surrender their card from their home state and get a new one in the host state. This system of portability limits migrants’ access to the benefits under the PDS and thus, they are unable to avail them.
- However, One Nation One Ration Card (ONORC) has improved things in this regard.
One Nation One Ration Card (ONORC): The ONORC scheme is being implemented by the central government for the nation-wide portability of ration cards under National Food Security Act (NFSA). Through this all eligible ration card holders/beneficiaries covered under NFSA can access their entitlements from anywhere in the country.
Lack Of Affordable Housing And Basic Amenities
According to the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, migrants make up 47% of the urban population and are the largest group in need of housing in cities as of 2015. However, there is a shortage of affordable rental and ownership housing options, resulting in the growth of informal settlements and slums.
Prime Minister Awaas Yojana (PMAY): Prime Minister Awaas Yojana (PMAY) is a program initiated by the central government to provide housing assistance to individuals belonging to the economically weaker section and low-income group. Assistance under the scheme includes: i) slum rehabilitation, ii) subsidised credit for home loans, iii) subsidies up to Rs 1.5 lakh to either construct a new house or enhance existing houses on their own and iv) increasing availability of affordable housing units in partnership with the private sector. Since housing is a state subject, there is variation in the approach of States towards affordable housing.
The Rise Of Nativism
- The rise of nativist sentiment around migration has been on the increase in recent years. This is largely rooted in a perceived threat to local residents from migrant workers hired for cheaper labour and weaker capacity to fight for their rights.
- This has been seen in the passing of laws like those in Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh that guarantee reservation rights for local workers, as well as in the conflict around migrant workers seen in Gujarat in 2018.
- These incidents have shown how easily the rights of migrant workers can be violated, and has thus led to a feeling among Indian politicians that they should take sides when it comes to migration-related ethnic strife.
Solutions
- The challenge now is to ensure that India’s constitutional guarantee to movement remains a living right by talking extensively across Indian states. It is important to understand that migration can be mutually beneficial, not just economically but morally as well, in protecting the rights of some of India’s most vulnerable citizens.
- The rise of nativism around migration is a challenge that needs to be addressed proactively and fairly in order to ensure that India’s constitutional guarantee remains intact.
- This can be done in several ways, such as by having a comprehensive dialogue between states, government and civil society organisations to ensure that the rights of migrant workers are respected.
- It is also important to create more opportunities for these workers to gain access to better education and health services, and to ensure that they are paid a wage commensurate with the value of their work.
Exclusion From The Electoral Process
- Short-term internal migrants are often excluded from the democratic process because they cannot cast their votes and do not have a voice in their place of work.
- Furthermore, due to their transient nature, they are unable to lobby for themselves or influence policy makers in the cities where they work.
- As a result, their issues often go unheard by representatives at the institutional and policy levels, leading to their social and economic exclusion.
- By not having a say in how their lives are being shaped or in the policies that affect them, these individuals are left behind and unable to secure better futures for themselves.
Solutions
- The Government of India’s response to the exclusion of short-term internal migrants from the electoral process has been to form a “working group on migration” in 2015.
- This committee released its findings and recommendations in 2017, aiming to empower members of this population. These efforts ranged from providing portable insurance systems and easier access to healthcare and education to launching upskilling programmes and revising urban and rural empowerment policies.
- These proposed changes are an attempt to ensure that the migrant population has a say in their lives, policies and futures.
- The committee’s main recommendation is to revise urban and rural empowerment policies on all levels so that they take a migrant lens into account and maximise the advantages of migration.
- The government had provided some aid for migrant workers during the Covid-19 pandemic – such as portable ration cards and rental housing – but there is still no clear policy in place to support them.